SUPPORTING TECHNICAL PAPERS
Below are a list of technical papers, which demonstrate:
- The distribution/radius of influence of SRS® emulsified vegetable oil substrate
- The carbon footprint of SRS® and longevity of SRS® emulsified vegetable oil substrate
- Utilization of the SRS®-NR formulation for nitrate treatment in permeable reactive barriers
- Inclusion of SRS® and ZVI in SRS®-ZVI
- The benefit of nutrients in the anaerobic dechlorination process
- The benefit of Vitamin B12 in the anaerobic dechlorination process
- The benefit of bioaugmentation and lactate in the anaerobic dechlorination process
- The benefit of buffering the dilution and chase water during injections
| Technical Paper | Description |
|---|---|
| SRS® Radius of Influence and Longevity | |
| Bloom, A., G. DeLong, W. Ahlers, D. Williams, R. Lyon, L. Stenberg, A. Buell, and M. Lee. 2008a. Field demonstration of substrate distribution for accelerated anaerobic biodegradation at Dover AFB In: B. M. Sass (Conference Chair), Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds—2008. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds (Monterey, CA; May 2008). Battelle, Columbus, OH, Paper E-030. | An evaluation of the substrate distribution also at Dover Air Force Base, Delaware in another plume. Distribution of the oil in the soil matrix was found up to 22 feet from the injection well. |
| Bloom, A., G. DeLong, L. Stenberg, R. Lyon, and A. Buell. 2008b. Accelerated anaerobic bioremediation of a PCE source area. Two years later at Site SS07, Dover AFB, DE In: B. M. Sass (Conference Chair), Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds—2008. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds (Monterey, CA; May 2008). Battelle, Columbus, OH, Paper C-091. | Discusses a project at Dover Air Force Base, Delaware where 102,000 gallons of EVO, sodium lactate, nutrients, and water were applied. TOC levels as high as 4,860 mg/L were achieved with elevated TOC levels lasting for 21 months. PCE and TCE concentrations fell below maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) within one year. Daughter products including cis-DCE, VC, and ethene were generated. |
| Contaminated Land: Applications in Real Environments2010. SABRE Bulletin SAB 5. Overview of the SABRE Field Tests. | Discusses the SABRE project in the UK where SRS was applied for the bioremediation of dense nonaqueous phase liquid (DNAPL) TCE (Contaminated Land: Applications in Real Environments 2010). A 98 foot long x 13 foot wide by 13 foot deep test cell was constructed in a TCE DNAPL impacted area containing an estimated 5,300 pounds of TCE. About 5,280 pounds of 60% SRS®-SD was applied along with a dechlorinating culture. The test cell was pumped to maximize flow through the cell. About 60% of the TCE was removed from the cell as TCE and daughter products within the 20 months of operation. The project demonstrated that DNAPL TCE could be biologically degraded. |
| Lee, M. D., J. E. Lee, and R. L. Raymond, Jr. 2013. EVO carbon footprint, distribution, and longevity: Summary of SRS® case histories . E-21, in: R.R. Sirabian and R. Darlington (Chairs), Bioremediation and Sustainable Environmental Technologies—2013. Second International Symposium on Bioremediation and Sustainable Environmental Technologies (Jacksonville, FL; June 10–13, 2013), Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, OH. www.battelle.org/biosymp | Discusses the mobility and longevity of 60% SRS®-SD at five sites. EVO distribution and persistence is affected by site characteristics, substrate loadings, and the injection methodology with TOC distribution generally limited to about 20 feet (6.1 m) from the injection points and lasting from 80 to 2,529 days. |
| Lee, M. D., R.L. Raymond, and S. Cole, L. Stenberg and R. Lyon, and D. Williams. 2009. www.battelle.org/biosympEmulsified Vegetable Oil Transport Studies in Soil Columns. Paper L-82, in: G.B. Wickramanayake and H.V. Rectanus (Chairs), In Situ and On-Site Bioremediation—2009. Tenth International In Situ and On-Site Bioremediation Symposium (Baltimore, MD; May 5–8, 2009). ISBN 978-0-9819730-1-2. Publisher: Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, OH. | Column studies were conducted to evaluate the transport of SRS®-SD (small droplet) and SRS®-FRL (larger droplets). Injection of a 1 part EVO and 4 parts water mixture followed by chase water allowed for greater transport of the emulsion than injection of the more diluted EVO. The finer droplet size formulation moved through the soil column easier than the larger droplet size EVO, thus providing better distribution throughout the formation. EVO was detected in the effluent of the soil columns only after about one pore volume of the SRS® or SRS®-FRL. Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) analysis of water samples proved useful in determining the presence of vegetable oil whereas TOC also measures the presence of lactate. Hexane extraction and FAME analysis served as useful methods in determining the presence of vegetable oil in soil samples |
| Dombrowski, Paul M. P.E. and Michael Temple - ISOTEC, Lawrenceville, New Jersey, USA, Thomas Parece, P.E., Julianne Marrion, P.E., and Betsy Shreve, AICP AECOM, Chelmsford, Massachusetts, USA, James Begley, LSP - MT Environmental Restoration, Duxbury, Massachusetts, USA, Michael D. Lee, Ph.D., Richard Raymond, Jr., and Fritz Hostrop - Terra Systems, Inc. Claymont, Delaware, USA. 2017. Denitrifying Permeable Reactive Barriers on Cape Cod: Bench Scale Studies and Implementation of the First In-Situ EVO PRB. Fourth International Symposium on Bioremediation and Sustainable Environmental Technologies (Miami, FL; May 2017). ©2017 Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, OH, www.battelle.org/biosymp. A. Barton and S. Rosansky (Chairs). | Summary: Nitrate plumes from septic systems travel without significant attenuation to coastal waters of Cape Cod, MA. Column tests and a 110 foot wide EVO demonstration permeable reactive barrier (PRB) was installed. Under aerobic conditions, the urea and ammonia are converted to nitrate. The groundwater flow rate is typically between 1 to 3 feet per day in the sandy aquifers. Bench column tests were performed by Terra Systems and showed removal of the nitrate. Injections of 2,740 gallons of stickier formulation of SRS®-NR was applied by direct push injections and did not migrate through the columns. The PRB received the EVO solution diluted 4.3:1 with 350 pounds of sodium bicarbonate. Negligible impact of the EVO was seen at wells 7, 10, and 20 feet downgradient after 3 days. After 3 months, nitrate began to decrease in wells 10 feet downgradient. |
| SRS®-ZVI EVO and ZVI | |
| Kelley, Robert L and Michael Liskowitz (ARS Technologies, Inc., New Brunswick, NJ, USA, Andrew Peterson (apeterson@augustmack.com) August 2014. Mack Environmental, Inc., Indianapolis, IN, USA.. 2014. Effective, Sustainable In Situ Remediation Approach at Industrial Sites Using a Combination of Zerovalent Iron and Emulsified Vegetable OilC-067, in: H.V. Rectanus and S.H. Rosansky (Chairs). Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds—2014. Ninth International Conference on Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds (Monterey, CA; May 2014). ISBN 978-0-9819730-8-1, ©2014 Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, OH, www.battelle.org/chlorcon | Ferox Plus (SRS®-ZVI) and EHC were injected at the Copley, OH site with interbedded silt, sand, clay, and gravel with a groundwater flow rate of 3 ft/day (questionable). The target loading was 0.4% by weight of slurry to soil. Ferox Plus marries chemical reduction and biological degradation. For Bio, the kinetics are PCE>>TCE>>DCE>>VC and the pH decreases. For ZVI the kinetics are VC>>DCE>>TCE>>PCE, and the pH increases. Injection was by direct push top down with a 3-inch positive displacement Chemgrout pump. The radius of influence (ROI) was determined by magnetic separation of the soil particles. The Ferox Plus was applied at 0.43 pounds/ft3 into 12 points per day with a 5’ ROI. The EHC was applied at 2.3 pounds/ft3 into 13 points per day with a 2.5’ ROI. Ferox Plus was easier to inject and distribute than EHC. PCE was reduced by between 98.6 and 99.997%. It was unclear from the presentation which product was used in each location. TCE fell by 96.5 to 99.9%. Cis-DCE increased by 36.4% in one well and decreased by 70.0 to 91.1% in the three wells. VC increased by 20.0% to 248.8 in two wells and decreased by 51.6 to 99.7% in the two wells. Overall on a micromolar basis, total chlorinated ethenes decreased by 77.4 to 98.4%. |
| Lee, Michael D, R.L. Raymond. ZVI and SRS-Z Columns with Sulfidation for Treatment of VOCs and Hexavalent Chromium | Sulfidation of zero valent iron (ZVI) improves the extent of degradation of ZVI, increases the longevity, and reduces undesired hydrolysis reactions with water. Column tests were conducted with ZVI, a sulfidation agent (SA), and SRS-Z (custom blended 5 to 40% ZVI plus Terra Systems, Inc. (TSI) slow-release substrate emulsified vegetable oil with a fast release substrate, nutrients, and vitamin B12) alone and in combination with two loadings of FSS. SRS-Z can be prepared with 2, 4, 44, or <125 mm ZVI particles. All column treatments received 10 g/kg of a 4 mm ZVI, the treatments with SRS received 15 g/kg, and the treatments with SA received between 1 and 5 g/kg of the SA. Solutions of 1.3 to 3.1 mg/L TCE, 0.72 to 3.1 mg/L 1,1,1-trichloroethane (1TCA), and 2.9 to 4.8 mg/L Chloroform (CF) were prepared as the influent. Later an influent with 90 to 100 mg/L of hexavalent chromium was prepared. A mixture of bioaugmentation cultures including Dehalococcoides and Dehalobacter were added on Day 15. On Day 17, 1.1 g/L of SA was added to the influent. The average retention time was 57 hours. The treatments with SA outperformed the ZVI or SRS-Z without SA for the TCE, CF, and 1TCA. More final chlorinated ethene degradation products (ethene, ethane, and acetylene) were generated with SA. Less dichloromethane, chloromethane, 1,1-dichloroethane, 1,1-dichloroethene, and chloroethane were produced with the SA increasing the extent of the chlorinated methane and chlorinated ethane removals. Hexavalent chromium and total chromium were reduced from about 90 mg/L to 0.12 mg/L or less by the columns containing ZVI, SRS-Z, and SRS-Z plus SA. The total chromium was reduced to below 0.02 mg/L indicating precipitation onto the ZVI. These results are very encouraging for the combination of SRS, ZVI, and sulfidation to treat chlorinated solvents and chromium. |
| pH Buffering | |
| Lee, M. D., E. Hauptmann, and R.L. Raymond, D. Ochs, R. Lake, and M. Selover. 2010. Buffering Acidic Aquifers with Soluble Buffer to Promote Reductive Dechlorination. F-031, in K.A. Fields and G.B. Wickramanayake (Chairs), Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds—2010. Seventh International Conference on Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds (Monterey, CA; May 2010). ISBN 978-0-9819730-2-9, Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, OH, www.battelle.org/chlorcon. | The groundwater pH at the site was about 4.8. Sodium carbonate was chosen as the buffering agent. A total of 52,500 pounds of SRS, 9,900 pounds of sodium carbonate, and 323,000 gallons of groundwater were injected into the 180 by 384 x 25 foot thick treatment area. |
| Alexander, Matthew. L. Leidos Inc., San Antonio, TX, USA and Allen Motley, Leidos, Inc., Oak Ridge, TN, USA. Case Study of the Biotreatment of a Dilute Chlorinated Solvent Plume in an Acidic Aerobic Aquifer. In: H.V. Rectanus and P. Rodgers (Chairs). Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds—2018. Eleventh International Conference on Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds (Palm Springs, CA; May 2018). 2018 Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, OH, www.battelle.org/chlorcon | In situ bioremediation has been used to a treat a 30-acre plume of diluted chlorinated solvents in an acidic aquifer in central New Jersey since 2010. About 1,000 L of bioaugmentation culture have been injected along with serval million gallons of emulsified vegetable oil and sodium bicarbonate. |
| Importance of Vitamin B12 | |
| He, J., V. F. Holmes, P. K. H. Lee, and L. Alvarez-Cohen. 2007. Influence of Vitamin B12 and cocultures on the growth of Dehalococcoides isolates in defined medium. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 73(9):2847-2853 | Dehalococcoides (DHE) are commonly found in mixed microbial communities with fermenters such as Desulfovibrio, Eubacterium, Acetobacterium, Citrobacter, and Clostridium. These organisms ferment a wide variety of compounds such as hexoses, lactate, pyruvate, and butyrate into H2 and acetate. DHE cannot synthesize corronoids, but a wide variety of bacteria in nature can produce vitamin B12. . The hydrogen threshold for DHE is <0.4 ppm which allows them to compete with other hydrogen-utilizing bacteria like methanogens and sulfate-reducers. Tests were performed with Vitamin B12 from 1 to 200 µg/L. At 25 µg/L, TCE dechlorination rates doubled and the final ethene to VC ratio increased. No improved dechlorination rates or growth was observed for higher levels of Vitamin B12. The addition of other strains that can produce vitamin B12 can overcome a vitamin B12 deficiency. |
| Importance of Lactate, Nutrients and Bioaugmentation | |
| Ellis, D. E., E. J. Lutz, J. M. Odom, R. J. Buchanan, Jr., C. L. Bartlett, M. D. Lee, M. R. Harkness, and K. A. DeWeerd. 2000. Bioaugmentation for accelerated in situ anaerobic bioremediation. Environmental Science and Technology 34.2254-2260. | The first successful anaerobic bioaugmentation project was carried out on a trichloroethene (TCE)-contaminated aquifer at Dover Air Force Base, DE, using a microbial enrichment culture capable of dechlorinating TCE to ethene. A hydraulically controlled pilot system 40 by 60 feet was constructed 50 feet below ground surface in an alluvial aquifer to introduce nutrients and substrate into the groundwater. Ambient TCE and cis-1,2-dichloroethene (cDCE) concentrations in groundwater averaged 4800 and 1200 g/L. The pilot operated for 568 days. Results by day 269 confirmed previous laboratory work showing that dechlorination did not proceed past cDCE with most of the TCE was dechlorinated to cDCE. An ethene-forming microbial enrichment culture from the Department of Energy’s Pinellas site in Largo, FL, was injected into the pilot area. After a lag period of about 90 days, vinyl chloride and ethene began to appear in wells. The injected culture survived and was transported through the pilot area. By day 509, TCE and cDCE were fully converted to ethene. |
| Harkness, M., A. Fisher, M. D. Lee, E. E. Mack, J. A. Payne, S. Dworatzek, J. Roberts, C. Acheson, R. Herrmann, and A. Possolo. 2012. Use of statistical tools to evaluate the reductive dechlorination of high levels of TCE in microcosm studies. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 131(1-4):100-118. | A microcosm study was performed to select amendments for reductive dechlorination of dense non-aqueous phase liquid (DNAPL) levels of trichloroethylene (TCE) found at an industrial site in the United Kingdom (UK). A total of 177 bottles were used in the fractional factorial experiment distributed between four industrial laboratories. The study assessed the impact of six electron donors, bioaugmentation with a dechlorination enrichment, addition of supplemental nutrients, and two TCE levels (75 and 250 mg/L in the aqueous phase) on TCE dechlorination. The performance was evaluated based on the changes in the concentrations of TCE and reductive dechlorination degradation products. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and survival analysis techniques were used to determine both main effects and important interactions for all the experimental variables during the 203-day study. The analysis showed that emulsified vegetable oil (EVO), lactate, and methanol were the most effective electron donors, promoting rapid and complete dechlorination of TCE to ethene. Bioaugmentation and nutrient addition also had a statistically significant positive impact on TCE dechlorination. Article available by request. Please contact mlee@terrasystems.net |